Forage and Pasture Management

Feeding budget: planning ahead

Keeping cows, heifers or calves healthy and productive, requires nutrient demand-oriented feeding. Appropriate diets prevent over- or underfeeding and result in an efficient use of nutrients. Knowledge of the daily nutrient needs of the animals allows careful planning of forage production and feeding, as well as strategic measures (such as selling certain animals, drying cows off) in a timely fashion. The following section explains, how to calculate a "feeding budget" and how to plan feed production.

Step 1 and 2: Calculating feed availability (1) & Nutrient demand (2)

Planning of feeding depends on two essential pieces of information: nutrient demand of cattle, and the availability of feed.

Determine the quantity and quality of available feed/forages, e.g. in storage + on rangelands/pastures (1), calculate the dry matter (kg DM) and/or as fresh fodder (kg)
Determine the nutrient needs of the animals on the farm (2)

How to know how much a cow eats per day?

Rough estimate of dry matter intake (DMI)

Dry matter intake (DMI) is the amount of fodder a cattle eats per day on a moisture-free basis. The estimated DMI provides the animal with sufficient energy for health and production. DMIs are general estimates and can vary due to numerous reasons: feed ration (quality, availability of forage and other feedstuffs), environment (climate, heat stress), physiology (body size, body condition, movement, stage of life, level of production). Throughout lactation, the level of DMI varies according to the production of milk.

Calculating dry matter intake: A mature dairy cow will consume approximately 1 to 3% of her body weight in dry matter intake per day. (Learn about ways to determine the body weight in the chapter “ration control”.)

Calculating fresh fodder intake: The amount of dry matter that should be consumed by the cow can be multiplied 6 times to get the amount of fresh fodder (in kg).

DMI tends to be lower when:

Temperatures are high (over 24ºC)
Little water is available
No or low milk production
Few days before calving
Supplements with high content in energy/protein are fed.

Example:

A Zebu cow with 200 kg body weight consumes approximately 4 kg dry matter or 24 kg fresh fodder at an early stage of lactation per day. (200 kg *(2 /100)=4 kg and 4kg*6 = 24 kg). The feed demand for the next two months (60 days) is therefore 240 kg DM or about 1,5 tons of fresh fodder.
A cross-bred dairy cow weighing 400 kg consumes about 12 kg of dry matter or 72 kg fresh fodder per day. (400 kg *(3/100) = 12 kg and 12kg*6 = 72kg). The feed demand for the next two months (60 days) is therefore 720 kg DM or about 4-4,5 tons of fresh fodder.

Feeding budget (3)

Derived from the calculated demand and feed availability, a feeding budget can be calculated:

Feeding budget

Available feed – Feed demand = Feed balance

Knowing the feeding budget is particularly necessary to assess what measures are needed to overcome periods of fodder shortage, e.g., during the dry season.

Too much feed: the feed can be preserved or/and sold, the number of cattle increased or the type of animals in the herd changed.
Too little feed: the number of animals in the herd can be reduced, fodder production can be increased/ optimised, or feed can be bought.

In case of a deficiency situation, it is helpful to know if there is a lack of energy, of protein, of minerals, or of vitamins in order to take the appropriate measures:

When the surplus/lack of energy and protein in the current ration have been calculated with a computer program, this has an impact on the selection of (new) fodder plants or purchased supplements.

Learn more about how to set up a feeding budget in this video from CIAT Kenya: Tutorial 6 Feeding budget and planning - YouTube

Strategic decisions (4)

Based on the results of the feeding budget, the farmers can decide whether...

… more or less conserved fodder (hay, silage, dried leaves of fodder trees) should be produced.
... the herd size should be adjusted (sell, buy or slaughter animals).
... or the composition of the herd should be adjusted (e.g. more fattening cattle, fewer dairy cows).
... or the selection of cultivated forage plants is to be adapted.
... or fodder may be sold.
... or fodder is to be conserved.
(... or fodder is to be bought in.)

1. Form groups of 4 people.

2. Ask the groups to either take the farm of a farmer of the group as example, or to invent a typical farm. Ask them to determine the following factors: number of animals, breed, feed (forage-based), climate, husbandry system.

3. Ask them to discuss the following questions in the group:

Which animal groups (age, lactation level) are held on the farm?
What feeds do the animals eat?
What is the dry matter content of these feeds (e.g. from internet search)?
What is the expected DMI per animal group?

4. Ask the farmers to calculate the expected DMI per year for the whole farm.

5. Invite the groups to present their calculations to the plenary.

Forage cultivation

What and how to cultivate?

While fodder includes different feedstuffs that are fed to cattle, i.e. cultivated forages as well as crop residues e.g., straws (rice, wheat, maize stover), forages refer to crops, including grasses, shrubs, trees and legumes, that are grown purposely to feed livestock. Therefore, forage cultivation involves the deliberate and planned cultivation of crops that serve as feed for livestock. These forage crops are essential for the nutrition and well-being of various grazing animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, and horses, particularly if they are kept for milk production or draught power. Animals kept for meat production may rely on rangeland only, but supplementary feeding with cultivated fodder can also improve their productivity significantly. Proper forage cultivation is an opportunity to achieve quality and sufficient quantity of feed and ensures healthy and productive livestock.

Some examples of plant species that are used as fodder plants are:

Forage grasses: Napier grass, Rhodes grass, Brachiaria grass, Panicum grass, Blue buffalo grass
Fodder trees: Leucaena, Gliricidia, Calliandra, Sesbania, Acacia species, Moringa, Faidherbia/Winterhorn
Forage legumes: Sunhemp/Crotalaria, Desmodium (Desmodium spp.), Vicia villosa/fodder vetch, Lupin beans, Lablab purpureaus, Cowpea, Centrosema, Stylo (Stylosanthes spp.), Alfalfa/Lucerne
Crop residues: Maize stover, Groundnuts haulms, Cottonseed cake, Fodder Sorghum (stover), Cassava peels

Here are some key aspects to consider when planning forage cultivation:

Select suitable forage species: Different forage species have varying requirements, nutritional values, and adaptability to different climates and soil types. It is essential to select species that are well-suited to the local conditions and can thrive in the specific area where they will be cultivated. The Tropical Forages tool helps to select forages depending on locality (only in English).
Soil preparation: Adequate soil preparation is necessary to create a favourable environment for forage growth. This involves soil testing, proper drainage, and, if needed, soil amendments to correct nutrient deficiencies or soil pH.
Planting techniques: Depending on the forage species, planting can be done through seeds, seedlings, or vegetative propagation methods like splits or stolon. Proper planting depth, spacing, and timing are critical for successful establishment. Details by species are also available in the Tropical Forages tool.
Fertilisation: Regular soil testing (or observation through indicator plants) will help determine the appropriate fertilisation requirements. Applying the right type and amount of fertiliser ensures optimal plant growth and helps maintain soil fertility.
Weed control: Weeds compete with forage crops for nutrients, water, and sunlight. Implementing effective weed control measures, such as mowing, application of herbicides (not permitted in certified organic farming), or manual removal, is necessary to prevent weed domination.
Irrigation: Depending on the climate and natural rainfall patterns, irrigation may be necessary to sustain forage growth during dry periods. Efficient water management is essential to prevent overwatering or underwatering. Forages that do well in dry areas or that can withstand waterlogging, can also be filtered from the Tropical Forages website.
Grazing management: If the forage area is used for grazing, proper grazing management is vital to ensure sustainable forage growth and maintain healthy stands. Rotational grazing, where livestock are moved between different paddocks, prevents overgrazing and allows forage plants to recover.
Harvesting and storage: Forages can be harvested and stored as hay or silage for feeding animals during periods when fresh forage is scarce. Timely harvesting and proper storage techniques are essential to preserve the nutritional quality of the forage. (details below)
Monitoring and Maintenance: Regular monitoring of forage stands is necessary to detect any issues such as pest infestations, diseases, or nutrient deficiencies. Timely action can help prevent further damage and ensure the health of the forage crop.
Renovation and re-seeding: Over time, perennial forage stands may decline in productivity or be invaded by less desirable species. Renovation and re-seeding may be required to rejuvenate the forage area and maintain optimal productivity.

Forage grasses

Benefits of forage grasses

Largely, forage grasses provide the required energy in the feed ration.
Depending on the variety and maintenance, they can provide large amounts of fodder, enabling producers to conserve excess forage in the form of silage or hay.
Due to their good soil coverage, they are a very efficient means to control soil erosion.
Forage grasses can be used as meadows or as pastures; when used as pasture, the fresh manure from the livestock replenishes the soil with nutrients.
Find some examples of fodder grasses and trees with respective nutrient contents for livestock here.
Tropical Forages; a tool that was developed by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT in cooperation with the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research https://www.tropicalforages.info/text/intro/index.html

Find a list of forage grass varieties and cultivation specifications in the following table:

Forage legumes

Benefits of forage legumes

Legumes fix nitrogen from the atmosphere through symbiosis with a certain nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which can improve the nitrogen supply in the soil for other crops. The fixed nitrogen is used for the growth of the plants. When bacteria and/or roots die, the nitrogen contained in their cells is made available to the rootzone of the soil. The same applies if entire leguminous plants are mulched or worked into the soil. This nitrogen is easily made available to other plants (e.g. grasses) and will encourage their growth, and thus crop yields.
Improvement of soil fertility and hence crop yields.
Improvement of the feed ration: since legumes have a high protein content, the inclusion of legumes in the feed ration will improve the protein supply of the livestock, and as a result can substantially increase their live weight or their milk production.

Varieties

Among the forage legumes that are promising and do well include
- Crotalaria juncea/ Sunn hemp
- Desmodium intortum; green leaf
- Vicia villosa; fodder vetch
- Lupin; lupin beans
- Lablab purpureus
- Cowpea; Vigna unguiculata
Common grass-legume mixtures include the combination of grasses like Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) or Napier grass (Cenchrus purpureus) with legumes like Stylosanthes spp. or Desmodium spp.

Note: In soils with low rhizobial populations (the nitrogen-fixing bacteria), inoculation may be necessary so that the legumes can perform nitrogen fixation well. This is particularly the case in climates with periods of drought that kill the bacteria or in areas where no legumes have been grown in the past years.

Cultivation methods

Starting cultivating grasses

Learn more about how start the cultivation of forage grasses in these videos from CIAT Kenya:

Forage-growing niches on farms and in landscapes

Sown forages can play various roles in farming systems. They can be grown as pasture in grazing systems, e.g. through over-sowing of natural grasslands. They can occupy specific niches in semi-intensive mixed crop-livestock systems which rely on a diverse feed basket, e.g., planted as live barriers on farm and ﬁeld boundaries, under-story in plantation, or as cover crop, green manure or intercrop with food crops. The integration of forage legumes as intercrops or boundaries has the potential to positively impact crop yields because of the nitrogen fixation done by legumes. Planting green manure between crops and having it grazed to get the manure onto the field is also a good option where water is available. In more intensive systems, they are often planted as pure stands on arable land, e.g. grass in sole stand or forage legume rotations with grasses and food crops.

Potential forage niches for additional feed production include terraces; understory in public woodlots; areas at government institutions (schools, administrative buildings); understory in private tree plots; marshlands; field and farm boundaries; roadsides; and forest buffer zones with farming activities to prevent forest encroachment.

Fodder banks

Fodder banks are plantings of high-quality fodder species, usually trees or shrubs, and often legumes. The relatively deep roots of these woody perennials allow them to reach soil nutrients and moisture unavailable to grasses and herbaceous plants. This characteristic enables these plants to retain fresh foliage into the dry season. The ability of some legumes to fix atmospheric nitrogen makes them protein rich feeds. They can be utilised all year but are designed to bridge the forage scarcity of annual dry seasons. Fodder banks cannot provide 100 % of the feed requirements but can supplement the available dry season forage. Some examples of recommended species for fodder banks are:

Arid & semi-arid Tropics: Albizia lebbeck, Cajanus cajan
Humid Tropics: Acacia angustissima, Albizia lebbeck, Cajanus cajan, Leuceana leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium, Sesbania sesban
Highland Tropics: Calliandra calothyrsus, Calliandra tetragona, Leuceana diversifolia
Arid & semi-arid temperate: Chamaecytisus palmensis

Find more information on fodder banks here: Fodder banks

Sustainable land management and water conservation practices

Forage cultivation contributes to sustainable land management. Perennial forages allow minimum soil disturbance i.e., minimum tillage is key for a good soil structure, soil health. Perennial forages also contribute to soil erosion control. These are forages that can grow in harsh condition i.e., minimal precipitation, reducing pressure on arable lands for food crops. Planting techniques of forages e.g., “Tumbukiza” where forages are planted in pits that harvest water for the forage, enhance productivity and water use, especially in relatively dry areas.

Fodder conservation

What is fodder conservation?

Conservation is a highly beneficial aspect of forage and pasture management, especially in agricultural systems where livestock are raised. It involves the process of preserving and storing forage crops as hay or silage, which can then be used as livestock feed during periods when fresh forage is scarce or unavailable. Forage conservation is essential to ensure a steady and reliable supply of nutritious feed for animals throughout the year, including seasons when pasture growth is limited, such as dry periods. Two common methods of forage conservation are hay making and silage production.

Learn more about fodder conservation in this video: Tutorial 4 Forage production Harvesting - YouTube

What is the best way to preserve fodder?

Both hay and silage have their advantages and are suitable for different situations. Hay is generally better suited for preserving the nutritional value of legumes, while silage is more effective for high-moisture grasses and corn. Properly made and stored, both hay and silage can provide valuable feed for livestock during times of scarcity, helping to maintain animal health and productivity. It's essential to pay close attention to the quality of the forage, the timing of harvesting, and the conservation process to ensure optimal results in fodder conservation.

Hay

Hay is made by cutting, drying, and storing forage crops such as grasses, legumes, or a mix of both. The primary goal of haymaking is to remove moisture from the forage to prevent spoilage and preserve its nutritional quality.

Main steps of hay making:

Cutting: The forage crop is cut when it reaches the appropriate stage of growth, usually when it's in the early flowering stage/ when the seed heads start to emergence. Timing is crucial to ensure maximum nutritional value. Note: In some regions it is common to cut and harvest the grass when it is already dry. Earlier cutting, as described above, can increase the nutritional value of the grass and is therefore recommended.
Drying: The cut forage is spread out under a shade to dry. This can be done in the form of rows or swaths, depending on the equipment available. The drying process may take several days depending on weather condition and method of drying, and it's essential to monitor the forage to avoid over-drying or spoilage due to rain.
Raking: After the forage has dried adequately, it is gathered into rows or windrows using rakes. This facilitates the next step of baling. This step is only necessary if automatic balers are used.
Baling (with a machine): The dried forage is compressed into bales using balers. Bales can be cylindrical or rectangular, depending on the type of baler used. Baling (by hand): If no baler is available, hay bales can also be made using a box. First lay out the box with strings. Then the hay is pressed into the box (e.g. by stepping on it with your feet). The pressed hay is then tied together with the strings to form bales.
Storage: The bales (or the loose hay) are then stored in a dry and protected area, such as barns or haystacks, to prevent moisture reabsorption and preserve the hay's quality.

Assessing hay quality: Good hay retains greenish colour when dried properly especially under shade. It does not contain mould and foreign materials, and if the hay contains a mixture of grass and legumes harvested at the optimal stage, produces premium hay.

Silage

Silage is a fermented forage product made from high-moisture crops like grasses, legumes or maize (using the full corn plant or stover). Silage presents an alternative way to hay to preserve fodder for livestock. The fermentation process involved in silage production helps to preserve the nutritional content of the forage. This ensures that the stored feed retains a higher level of vitamins and minerals compared to sun-dried forage, providing better nutrition for the livestock.

Main steps of silage making:

Harvesting: The forage crop is cut at an early growth stage when it has a high moisture content, usually around 60 to 70 %. The crop is chopped into small pieces to facilitate packing and fermentation.
Packing: The chopped forage is tightly compacted into silos, pits, or bales to exclude air. Air-tight packing is essential to create an anaerobic (oxygen-free) environment necessary for fermentation.
Fermentation: In the absence of oxygen, lactic acid bacteria naturally present on the forage initiate the fermentation process. This fermentation leads to a drop in pH, which preserves the forage and prevents spoilage.
Sealing: Once the silo or pit is filled, it is sealed with plastic covers or other air-tight materials to prevent air from entering and spoiling the silage.

Storage of silage: Silage can be stored for several months to a year, depending on the quality of the silage and the effectiveness of the sealing process.

Assessing silage quality: The material ensiled should be harvested at the right stage when the nutrients and dry matter content are optimal. Good silage attains a golden colour, has a slightly sweet, acid smell, and is devoid of mould and foreign materials.

Find more information on silage making for smallholders here: Silage making for smallholders (fao.org)

Grazing land management

Grazing land or pasture management is a critical aspect of sustainable agriculture and livestock production. It involves various practices aimed at optimizing the health and productivity of grazing lands, ensuring the well-being of the animals that graze on them, and preserving the environment. Overall, effective pasture management through planned grazing and pasture quality improvement contributes to sustainable agriculture by maintaining the health of the land, enhancing livestock performance, and preserving natural resources. By balancing livestock needs with ecosystem health, farmers and producers can create a productive and resilient grazing system for the long term.

Two key components of pasture management are planned grazing and improving pasture quality.

Planned grazing

What is planned grazing?

Planned grazing, also known as rotational grazing or managed grazing, is a system where livestock are intentionally moved from one grazing area to another in a planned and systematic manner. Livestock grazes the forage down in a short period of time with limited selection of palatable over non-palatable species. Livestock also tramples down vegetation, leaving a cover on the soil, protecting it from sunshine and erosion. When the livestock has moved out of an area the vegetation has time to rest and recover. The goal is to mimic the natural movement of wild herbivores across landscapes, which helps maintain the health of both the vegetation and the soil.

Benefits of planned grazing

Improved pasture health: By allowing pastures to rest and recover after grazing, plants have a chance to regrow and develop their root systems, leading to a more productive and drought-tolerant vegetation.
Soil health: Controlled grazing reduces soil compaction and erosion while enabling proper soil biological activity (e.g. earthworm activity) and thus contributes to build-up of soil fertility.
Biodiversity: Rotational grazing limits the stress on the plants, and thus allows a greater diversity of plant species to survive.
Water quality: Proper grazing management can lead to better water infiltration and reduce runoff, minimizing loss of soil, water and nutrients and avoiding/ minimising pollution in nearby water bodies.

How to implement planned grazing:

Dividing the grazing land into paddocks: Dividing the pastures into paddocks with fencing units facilitates rotational grazing. Restriction of animals can be done through permanent fences, electric fencing or herding.
Monitoring forage growth: Daily monitoring forage growth helps determine when to move livestock to a new paddock to avoid overgrazing. In dry environments, an assessment of the available forage is made at the end of the rainy season as there is no or only little regrowth during the dry season for several months.
Resting periods: Allowing pastures to rest between grazing periods encourages plant recovery. A general guideline is to graze areas for 1 to 7 days followed by a resting period of at least 30 days during the growing period, and at least 90 days during the non-growing period. This helps to ensure the long-term maintenance of a healthy and productive rangeland .
Adapting grazing to seasonal changes: Adjusting grazing patterns based on seasonal variations in forage growth and weather conditions contributes to maximising biomass production and optimising nutritional values of the vegetation.

Note: If animals are grazed on communal rangelands by multiple livestock owners, decisions should be made collectively (e.g. by using the reciprocal grazing agreements approach).

Improving quality of grazing land/pastures

Enhancing grazing land quality involves implementing strategies to promote the growth of nutritious and palatable forage for livestock. High-quality pastures are essential for maximising animal performance and minimising the need for supplemental feed.

Ways to Improve Pasture Quality:

Soil Testing and Fertilisation: Regular soil testing helps identify nutrient deficiencies, allowing targeted fertilization to improve plant growth.
Legume Establishment: Introducing legumes can enrich pastures with nitrogen, benefiting both the soil and other grass species.
Weed Control: Managing weeds and invasive species through manual control, mowing, or targeted grazing prevents them from overtaking valuable forage species.
Seeding and Reseeding: Planting desirable forage species and rehabilitating areas with poor vegetation can improve pasture quality.
Proper Grazing Management: As discussed earlier, planned grazing ensures even utilisation of pasture, promoting the growth of desirable plants.